Historical drawing
China has been considered a developing country for many years, however, for the past decades Beijing has undergone a crucial economical transformation and has become 1 of the most crucial players in the global technological arena. The ripening period of modern rocket technology coincided with profound changes in China, and they themselves considered space technologies to be 1 of the possible drivers of scientific, social and military development. Today, the People's Republic of China is considered a planet leader in economics, military and advanced technologies. The spectacular and more independent achievements made by the Chinese people in the last 20 years have raised questions about the improvement of innovation and related public policies in the oriental structure of communist power[1]. In modern times, erstwhile there is no period without loud successes in this field in China, the subject becomes important. There is besides increasing interest in strategy plan mechanisms and their implementations supporting the project[2]. The People's Republic of China sent its first space mission in 1970 as part of Liang Dan Yi Xing (Two Bombs and Satellite Program) which was a secret engineering task carried out to get atomic and fusion weapons and an effective means of transportation – an intercontinental ballistic missile[3]. The improvement of rockets further enabled the anticipation of placing the satellite in orbit, but until the early 1990s, erstwhile the task was resumed, it was not the People's Republic of China that made crucial profits from this success[4[5]. The collapse of the USSR in 1991 and the financial difficulties of Russia in subsequent years created an chance to acquisition advanced space technologies from Russia, but besides procedures for training Chinese method and aviation personnel and copying Russian infrastructure in China. There was a fresh beginning, and this time both Chinese engineers and political stakeholders felt strong work for achieving success in space exploration[6]. This feeling now translates into China's innovation policy and reflects in national improvement strategies – five-year and ten-year plans[7].
First, a household of efficient and reliable launch systems – Long March rockets – was created, which were tested in practice in all space mission script presently being prepared. Since 1970, erstwhile a modified military ballistic rocket was launched as Long March 1, nearly 20 rocket models have been successfully deployed and implements orbital flights. Each was designed for a different task, payload and specifications[8]. The second phase of improvement was to carry out a safe manned mission. The Chinese in this case amazed the planet in 2003. Currently, Chinese manned flights have become routine, and as of 2020, erstwhile China launched its own Tiangong orbital station (天宫 – Heavenly Palace) with a rotational, permanent presence of taikonuts, presence in orbit has assumed a permanent character[9][10].
Space missions and key projects
The success of the Long March rocket strategy and Shenzhou manned capsules prompted China People to search for further milestones previously achieved by the US and USSR/Russia in space capacity development.
From an economical perspective, the global satellite navigation strategy Beidou (北斗 – large Bear) implemented in 3 phases since the late 20th century and completed with momentum in 2018. This system, akin to the US GPS or European Galileo, is available worldwide for free (excluding the price of the device). In the first phase (since 2000) it included the test territory of China serviced by 4 satellite-prototypes. In the second phase, which began in 2007, the navigation network was stretched over almost all of Asia. The 3rd phase of construction in 2015-2018 enabled the operation worldwide thanks to 30 modern Beidou satellites 3. This strategy is an crucial component of Chinese strategical infrastructure – the People's Liberation Army strategical Rocket Force uses it for navigational purposes for atomic triad, and a symbol of technological progress, independent of the PRC in providing critical services from the US[11].
As the media discourse shows, the Chinese conquest of space is inextricably linked narratively and scientifically with native tradition and symbolism. For this not only, but the exposed reason, China is keenly curious in the Earth's Moon. The Chinese Lunar Exploration Program CLEP bears the name of goddess Chang’e – 嫦娥[12]. It has been conducted since 2004, and its current course is powerfully exhibited in abroad transmission. So far, China has managed to accomplish all its goals in lunar exploration: to enter orbit and moon research, to land on the Moon's surface and rover operations, to land on the invisible side of the Moon and to successfully communicate with the camera there ( Chang'e Mission 4 in 2019 – peculiarly crucial since no country has previously made a landing on the invisible side precisely due to the deficiency of contact. China has solved this problem by means of an intermediate communication utilizing the Queqiao 鹊桥 – Most Srok carrier probe.[13]. Since 2021, all Chang’e missions have been subordinate to the ILRS (International Lunar investigation Station) project, which China has been planning to build a permanent investigation facility after 2030 close 1 of the lunar poles. The base has, a model of space stations, the ability to guarantee the permanent presence of a man on the Moon and to deepen technological research, especially geological measurements associated with the exploitation of the Moon's natural resources[14].
The last 1 discussed in the memo is Tianwen (天问 – Heavenly Question) or a series of space missions dedicated to researching planets and another bodies of the solar system. The flagship mission Tianwen 1 to Mars has been implemented so far[15], which is presently operated by 3 devices: orbital probe, lander and Mars rover Zhurong supplied by him. The subsequent missions are in the conceptual phase include research: Asteroid Belt (confirmed as Tianwen 2), Venus, Jupiter's moon system, and a return mission with samples from Mars analogous to lunar (Mars example Return). It is worth looking at ideas and information regarding the last of the ideas due to China's bold declarations of willingness to send a manned Martian mission[16[17]
Development of the space sector in China
Fig. 1. Chinese infrastructure and economy (by Krzysztof Karwowski)
Chinese space business, operating on dual-use technologies (civil-military solutions), remained in the hands of state giants – large companies in the aerospace and arms industry, which were created on the wave of reforms by the transformation of specialized industrial ministries. 3 key features can be distinguished here: China Aerospace discipline and Technology Corporation, CASC[18], main supplier of spacecraft and space components – China Aerospace discipline and manufacture Corporation, CASIC[19] and a company from the border of aviation and astronauts Aviation manufacture corp of China, AVIC[20]. All 3 manage a subcontractor network of dedicated subcontractors, offices, factories and investigation facilities of the alleged academies. Despite the dominant function of these entities, parts of key technologies were released in China in 2014 and approval by the authorities to make space activities besides by the private sector – this led to the birth of a space launch manufacture with companies specified as OneSpace, LinkSpace, iSpace or Galactic Energy. In 2019, the first 2 companies successfully launched their own rockets, joining the planet revolution of "new space" – a revival of interest in the aeronautics manufacture and engagement of non-state actors[21].
In terms of technological and method backgrounds, Chinese state universities, universities and technology institutes are successfully providing them. Among the most active civilian institutions in this field are the Shanghai University of Jiao Tong (SJTU), the Northwest University of Technology in Xi’an (NWPU), the Beijing University of Technology (BIT) and the Huanzhong Central China discipline and Technology University in Wuhan (HZUST). In the Western global rankings, the number of HEIs of the Centre is systematically expanding in peculiar in the fields of STEM needed for the improvement of cosmonautics[22]. Military higher education in turn represent NUDT National Defence Technology University in Changsha, the Space University at the PLASSF strategical Support Force in Beijing (SEU) or the Rocket Forces method Academy in Xi’an[23It shall be active in the programme at all stages from the plan of space infrastructure and equipment through the preparation and implementation of the mission to the processing of investigation results[24].
Table 1. “Seven Sons of National Defence” – an exclusive association of method universities dedicated to the improvement of weapons, aerospace and rocket technologies[25].
The core of Chinese infrastructure is 4 launch centers (cosmodromes) equipped and adapted to each space mission scenario. Jiuquan and Taiyuan centres in northern China are military facilities originally created for investigating and developing fresh missiles. Xichang in the Sichuan state of central China, besides partially military, is the most comprehensive rocket center. It was constructed for the first proposed manned programme of the PRC. The most crucial presently Chinese starting centre is Wenchang in the confederate island state of Hainan. It has been operating as a civilian facility since 2015. The convenient position below the Rak Sphincter is crucial – taking off so close to the equator allows loads to scope orbit without unnecessary manoeuvres, with advanced speed, which translates into fuel saving and longer life. The success of the Wenchang cosmodrome encouraged China to build the 5th hotel – Xiangshan in western China in the suburbs of the port town of Ningbo. This division is known for its advanced technology industry, and the environment of the construction site with water, as in the case of Wenchang provides additional safety in the event of a failed start. It is worth mentioning that the Xiangshan centre is being created for the rapidly increasing private sector of Chinese rocket and satellite launchers to send their own missions from it[26].
Chinese space program in the context of Russia
Both countries are active in the improvement of advanced space technologies, including rockets, satellites, space probes and orbital stations. The Russian space program, as a russian mass decline, was chronologically the first and achieved crucial successes. China was invited in the 1970s to a space cooperation programme "Intercosmos" under the auspices of the USSR, but – due to the ongoing cultural revolution and the actions in India and Vietnam, it was not peculiarly active[27].
The situation reversed after the Cold War ended. The collapse of the USSR and the financial difficulties of Russia coincided with the economical transformation of China and their ambitions. Space technologies have become the subject of trade and exchange – China's solutions include Shenzhou pods based on Soyuz systems or medical and training procedures for flying personnel.
The only authoritative example of the cooperation of the space agencies of both countries was the joint Mars mission of 2011. The common flight of the Fobos-Grunt probe with the Chinese Yinghuo 1 orbiter (萤火一号 – Swietlik-1) resulted in a malfunction of the Russian component and an unreturned orbit[28]. The probes remained in low orbit and burned in the atmosphere in winter 2012.
A number of Russian failures (Mir station accident, Mars 96, Fobos-Yinghuo, Luna 25)[29In the shadow of the success of the PRC, it may indicate the end position of the Russian space programme and the exchange of Russia's function with the majority, as a number partner of China. The fact remains that China invited Russia to join the ILRS lunar station program[30].
Conclusions and conclusions
China's space-related goals in general can be divided into narrow and global ones. The erstwhile include: expanding the advanced commercial technology of satellites in key services specified as hard to disrupt communication and navigation and orbital photography, climate change prediction or crisis management. Additional assets of the civilian programme will be delicate military valuable data, in peculiar patents and implementations for intelligence collection systems, precise command and conflict management systems, as well as fresh space engine technologies for hypersonic weapons and aviation. As far as Chinese global ambitions are concerned, the space program can enter them as a symbol of the promotion of the Chinese model of improvement in the global south. The prestige and strategical opportunities are in turn crucial as support for China's global leadership, their course of transformation of their own economy into innovative and green, and the emphasis on territorial integrity and unity in an increasingly economically expanding society.
The authoritative budget of the program was estimated at $8.9 billion in 2020; USD 11.9 billion in 2022[31[32]. As a result, expenditure growth can be expected to proceed as well as further increasingly ambitious space missions. presently (February 28, 2024) at the final phase of preparation is another Chang’e 6 lunar mission to land on the invisible side of the Moon and to supply there with stone and dirt samples – another never-seen space maneuver.
Table 2. Calendar[33]
1952
– The creation of the Beijing Institute of Aviation (later Beihang University) through the merger of aviation institutes from all over China.
1956
– Presentation by Qian Xuesen of a 12-year improvement agenda of the Chinese space program accepted by the KPC. Establishment of the 5th investigation Academy focused on aviation and ballistic research.
1958
– Mao's speech to make China equal to superpowers considered a symbolic start to the atomic and satellite program collectively called "Two Bombs and 1 Satellite".
1960
– Construction of Nanhui rocket experience camp on Pudong Island in Shanghai, the launch of the first atmospheric polling rocket.
Launching Guangde's cosmodrome. First flight to the atmosphere boundary.
1961
– Establishment of the Shanghai Academy of Space Flight Technology.
1963
– Launch of Jiuquan's oldest inactive active cosmodrome.
1963
– Establishment of the Chinese Academy of Space Vehicles Technology CALT.
1966
– Successful effort to launch the Dong Feng 2 rocket and detonate its atomic warhead at the Lop Nur range.
1968
– Establishment of the Chinese Academy of Space Technology CAST.
Launching Taiyuan cosmodrome in Shanxi.
– Creation of the Beijing Institute of Space Medicine.
1970
- April 24th. Successful launch of Space rocket Long March 1. The rocket amounted to the first Chinese satellite Dong Fang Hong 1.
1974
– First launch of Long March 2 rocket.
1975
– Placing in Fanhui Shi Weixing orbit – the first reconnaissance satellite.
1984
Launch of Xichang cosmodrome in Sichuan.
1984
– Successful first launch of the Long March-3 rocket.
1988
– Successful first launch of Long March 4 rocket.
1993
– Establishment of the Chinese National Space Administration – CNSA.
1995
– Disaster of the Long March 2E rocket, incidental of the demolition of the Apstar 2 satellite.
1996
– Long March 3B rocket crash, Intelsat 708 satellite demolition incident.
1999
– Shenzhou program, first test flight of Shenzhou crew unit 1.
2000
– Launch of the Beidou 1 satellite as the first component of the orbital navigation system, originally in an area encompassing China.
2001
– Start Shenzhou 2, 8-day flight with animals and organic preparations,
2002
– Start Shenzhou 3, flight with mannequin, space suit and rocket rescue module.
– Start Shenzhou 4, flight with full equipment needed by man.
2003
– Shenzhou 5, first manned mission involving Tajkonuta Yang Liwei.
– Double Star – satellite mission for magnetosphere investigation in CNSA-ESA cooperation.
2004
– Initiation of the studio phase of the Chang’e lunar program.
2005
– Launch Shenzhou 6, flight with 2 crew.
2006
– Yaogan program – signal and image designation satellite system.
2007
– investigating anti-satellite weapons, demolition of the FY-1C satellite by kinetic weapons.
– Launch of Beidou 2's first satellite (navigation in Asia).
– The Chang’e 1 lunar probe reaches orbit of the Moon.
2008
– Start Shenzhou 7 with 3 taikonauts, the first Chinese space walk.
2010
– The Chang’e 2 spacecraft reaches orbit of the Moon.
2011
– First flight of the unmanned miniature shuttle Shenlong CSSHQ.
– Placing in orbit the Tiangong 1 orbit laboratory
– Start Shenzhou 8, a successful mooring effort to Tiangong 1.
2012
– The Chang’e 2 probe mission is extended by targeting deep space, investigating the control and communication strategy and examining the Toutatis asteroid.
– Launch Shenzhou 9, Liu Yang the first Chinese in space.
2013
Start of Shenzhou 10.
– Mission Chang’e 3, landing lander and rover Yutu-1.
– Gaofen – a constellation of Earth reflection satellites in advanced separation, officially for agricultural and environmental purposes, possibly intelligence.
2015
– OneSpace is the first private space company in China.
– First launch of Long March 6 rocket.
– First launch of Long March 11 rocket. The rocket is capable of ‘cold launch’ on mobile, wheeled, ships and submarines.
– Commencement of the global navigation strategy Beidou 3
2016
– Launch of Wenchang cosmodrome on Hajnan state Island.
– First launch of Long March 7 rocket.
– Launch of Mozi / QUESS quantum communications satellite
– Completing the construction of the 500-meter Tianyan / FAST radio telescope.
– First launch of the Long March 5 rocket (the 2014 supervisor).
– Location in orbit of Tiangong 2 orbit laboratory.
– Start Shenzhou 11
2017
Tiangong Deorbitation 1.
– Start the Tianzhou 1 freight vehicle and autonomous mooring to Tiangong 2.
– Launch of Huiyan X-ray Telescope
2018
– Place Queqiao carrier probe at the Moon's liberating point for communication with the invisible side of the Moon.
2019
– The first always landing of lander Chang’e 4 and rover Yutu-2 on the invisible side of the Moon. –-The success of communication with the invisible side of the Moon.
– First launch of a private Chinese Hyperbola 1 rocket by i-Space.
2020
– Launch of Tianwen 1 mission towards Mars.
– First launch of Long March 11 rocket from the ocean platform in the Yellow Sea.
– Mission Chang’e 5, landing the probe on the Moon and sending the collected samples (about 2 kg) in the return capsule to Earth.
– First launch of Long March 8 rocket.
2021
– Placing in orbit the first Tiangong space station module – Tianhe.
– Landing a Tianwen lander and a Zhurong rover on Mars.
– Start Shenzhou 12, 3-month manned mission to Tiangong station – Tianhe.
– Attempts to fly orbital hypersonic vehicles – US interpretation: weapons, Chinese translation: reusable space vehicles.
– Start Shenzhou 13, 6-month manned mission to Tiangong station – Tianhe.
– Signing a memorandum for the construction of the ILRS global Moon investigation Station between China and Russia.
2022
– Launch Shenzhou 14.
– Complete the construction of the Tiangong station.
Launch Shenzhou 15.
2023
– Launches of the Shenzhou 16 mission, then 17–half-year permanent crew tours in orbit.
– Successful effort of the first large-use rocket.
– Commence preparations for the Chang’e 6 mission
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